History: Concise Revision Notes for JKSSB Forester Exam - EduFrugal

History: Concise Revision Notes for JKSSB Forester Exam

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Overview: History is the study of the past, focusing on human societies, their cultures, economies, and political systems. For the Forester exam, a solid understanding of both Indian and World History is crucial. These notes prioritize key events, significant personalities, and broad movements.

Indian History: A Journey Through Time

I. Ancient India (Pre-history to c. 700 AD)

  • Pre-historic Period:
  • Paleolithic Age (Old Stone Age): Nomadic hunter-gatherers. Tools were crude stone (choppers, hand axes).
  • Mesolithic Age (Middle Stone Age): Transition period. Microliths (small, sharp stone tools) appeared. Animal domestication began (sheep, goat).
  • Neolithic Age (New Stone Age): Beginning of ‘food production era’. Agriculture (wheat, barley), settled life, pottery (wheel-made), polished stone tools. Important sites: Burzahom (Kashmir – pit dwellings, dog burials with masters), Mehrgarh (Pakistan – earliest evidence of agriculture).
  • Chalcolithic Age (Copper-Stone Age): First use of copper alongside stone. Village settlements. Distinct pottery styles.
  • Indus Valley Civilization (Harappan Civilization) (c. 2500 BC – 1750 BC):
  • Discovery: Daya Ram Sahni (Harappa, 1921), R.D. Banerji (Mohenjo-Daro, 1922). John Marshall coined “Indus Valley Civilization”.
  • Key Features:
  • Urban Civilization: Well-planned cities (grid system, brick houses, elaborate drainage).
  • Major Sites: Harappa (Punjab, Pakistan), Mohenjo-Daro (Sindh, Pakistan – Great Bath, Great Granary, Bronze Dancing Girl), Lothal (Gujarat – dockyard), Kalibangan (Rajasthan – fire altars, ploughed field), Dholavira (Gujarat – water harvesting, large inscription), Banawali (Haryana – toy plough).
  • Town Planning: Citadel (raised platform for important buildings) and Lower Town. Rectangular street patterns.
  • Economy: Agriculture (wheat, barley, cotton – first in world), trade (internal & external – Mesopotamia, Persia), crafts (pottery, bead making, seal carving).
  • Society: Three classes (rulers, merchants, laborers). Matriarchal influence (mother goddess).
  • Religion: Pashupati Mahadev (proto-Shiva) on seals, Mother Goddess worship, tree & animal worship. No temples.
  • Script: Pictographic, undeciphered.
  • Decline: Theories include Aryan invasion, floods, tectonic shifts, climate change, drying of Ghaggar-Hakra river.
  • Mnemonic for IVC Sites: “Harry Met Leo Kicking Donkeys Blindly” (Harappa, Mohenjo-Daro, Lothal, Kalibangan, Dholavira, Banawali).
  • Vedic Period (c. 1500 BC – 600 BC):
  • Arrival of Aryans: Debated origin (Central Asia, Arctic region, Sapta Sindhu). Pastoral nomadic people.
  • Sources: Vedas (Rig Veda, Sama Veda, Yajur Veda, Atharva Veda), Brahmanas, Aranyakas, Upanishads.
  • Early Vedic Period (Rig Vedic, c. 1500-1000 BC):
  • Political: Tribal assemblies (Sabha, Samiti, Vidhata, Gana), Rajan (chief) with limited powers.
  • Society: Varna system emerged but flexible (Brahmana, Kshatriya, Vaishya, Shudra). Women enjoyed higher status.
  • Economy: Primarily pastoralism (cow as wealth). Agriculture secondary. Barter system.
  • Religion: Nature worship (Indra, Agni, Varuna, Surya). Sacrifices.
  • Later Vedic Period (c. 1000-600 BC):
  • Political: Rise of Janapadas (territorial states). Rajan became more powerful. Kingship became hereditary.
  • Society: Varna system rigidified (birth-based). Ashramas (life stages) concept appeared. Decline in women’s status.
  • Economy: Agriculture became primary. Use of iron. Urbanization began.
  • Religion: Rituals, sacrifices became complex. Rise of new deities (Prajapati, Vishnu, Rudra/Shiva). Dharma, Karma, Moksha concepts.
  • Mahajanapadas (c. 6th century BC):
  • 16 powerful large kingdoms/republics emerged.
  • Most Important: Magadha (eventually dominated others).
  • Other Key: Koshala, Avanti, Vatsa.
  • Rise of Magadha: Rich iron deposits, fertile Gangetic plains, strategic location (Rajagriha, Pataliputra).
  • Haryanka Dynasty: Bimbisara (contemporary of Buddha, built Rajagriha), Ajatashatru (killed Bimbisara, fought Buddha’s cousin Devadatta), Udayin (shifted capital to Pataliputra).
  • Shishunaga Dynasty: Shishunaga, Kalasoka (convened Second Buddhist Council).
  • Nanda Dynasty: Mahapadma Nanda (first non-Kshatriya king, powerful army), Dhana Nanda (last Nanda ruler, overthrown by Chandragupta Maurya with Chanakya’s help).
  • Religious Movements (6th Century BC):
  • Jainism:
  • Founder: Rishabhanatha (1st Tirthankara).
  • Vardhamana Mahavira (24th & Last Tirthankara): True founder of Jainism. Born in Kundagrama (Vaishali). Attained enlightenment (Kaivalya) under Sal tree.
  • Doctrines: Tri-ratnas (Three Jewels): Right Faith, Right Knowledge, Right Conduct. Five Vows: Ahimsa (non-violence), Satya (truth), Asteya (non-stealing), Aparigraha (non-possession), Brahmacharya (celibacy – added by Mahavira). Extreme penance.
  • Sects: Digambaras (sky-clad, stricter), Shvetambaras (white-clad, liberal).
  • Jaina Councils: First (Pataliputra, 3rd cen BC – Bhadrabahu & Sthulabhadra led to split), Second (Vallabhi, 5th cen AD – compilation of 12 Angas).
  • Literature: Written in Prakrit and Ardha-Magadhi.
  • Buddhism:
  • Founder: Siddhartha Gautama (Sakyamuni, Tathagata). Born in Lumbini (Nepal) in 563 BC. Achieved enlightenment (Nirvana) under Pipal tree at Bodh Gaya. First sermon at Sarnath (Dharmachakra Pravartana). Died at Kushinagar (Mahaparinirvana).
  • Doctrines: Four Noble Truths (Suffering, Origin of Suffering, Cessation of Suffering, Path to Cessation). Eightfold Path (Right Understanding, Thought, Speech, Action, Livelihood, Effort, Mindfulness, Concentration). Middle path.
  • Tri-ratnas: Buddha, Dhamma (dharma), Sangha.
  • Buddhist Councils:
  • 1st (Rajagriha, 483 BC): Ananda compiled Sutta Pitaka (Buddha’s teachings), Upali compiled Vinaya Pitaka (monastic rules). King Ajatashatru.
  • 2nd (Vaishali, 383 BC): Split into Sthaviravada and Mahasanghika. King Kalasoka.
  • 3rd (Pataliputra, 250 BC): Abhidhamma Pitaka compiled. King Ashoka.
  • 4th (Kashmir, 1st cen AD): Split into Hinayana (Theravada, original teachings) and Mahayana (Buddha as God, Bodhisattvas). King Kanishka.
  • Literature: Tripitakas (Pali Canon): Sutta Pitaka, Vinaya Pitaka, Abhidhamma Pitaka. Jataka tales.
  • Causes of Decline in India: Revival of Brahmanism, use of Sanskrit, invasions (Hunas, Turks), corruption in Sangha.
  • Mauryan Empire (c. 322 BC – 185 BC):
  • Founder: Chandragupta Maurya (defeated Dhana Nanda, Seleucus Nicator). Advisor: Chanakya/Kautilya (author of Arthashastra – treatise on statecraft, economy, military strategy).
  • Bindusara: Son of Chandragupta. Extended empire to Deccan.
  • Ashoka the Great (c. 268-232 BC):
  • Kalinga War (261 BC): Transformed him from ‘Chandashoka’ to ‘Dharmashoka’. Propagated Dhamma (moral code, not religion).
  • Dhamma: Principles of peace, non-violence, respect for elders, tolerance. Appointed Dhamma Mahamatras.
  • Inscriptions/Edicts: Major Rock Edicts (14 sets, provide bulk of information), Minor Rock Edicts, Pillar Edicts. Written in Prakrit (Brahmi script). Ashokan edicts deciphered by James Prinsep.
  • Spread of Buddhism: Sent son Mahendra and daughter Sanghamitra to Sri Lanka.
  • Art & Architecture: Pillars (single shaft of sandstone, Bell capital, animal figures e.g., Lion Capital of Sarnath – India’s national emblem), Stupas (Sanchi, Bharhut – relic mounds), Rock-cut caves (Barabar caves).
  • Administration: Highly centralized. Emperor supreme. Council of Ministers (Mantriparishad). Samaharta (revenue collector), Sannidhata (treasurer). Espionage system.
  • Economy: State control over agriculture, trade. Punch-marked coins.
  • Decline: Weak successors, financial strain, Brahmanical reaction, pressure from Hellenistic kingdoms.
  • Foreign Accounts: Megasthenes (Greek ambassador to Chandragupta’s court) wrote ‘Indica’ (though only fragments survive, known through later authors).
  • Post-Mauryan Period (c. 185 BC – 320 AD):
  • Foreign Invasions (North-West):
  • Indo-Greeks: First to issue gold coins, introduced Hellenistic art (Gandhara School). Menander (Milinda) famous.
  • Shakas (Scythians): Extended control over western India. Rudradaman I (Junagadh inscription in Sanskrit).
  • Parthians: Brief rule.
  • Kushanas: Kujula Kadphises, Vima Kadphises, Kanishka the Great.
  • Kanishka: Patron of Mahayana Buddhism (4th Buddhist Council), initiated Saka Era (78 AD).
  • Art: Gandhara (Greco-Roman influence) & Mathura (indigenous) Schools of Art.
  • Achievements: Contributed to Silk Road trade, patronized scholars (Charaka – physician, Sushruta – surgeon, Ashvaghosha – Buddhacharita).
  • Indigenous Dynasties:
  • Sungas: Pushyamitra Sunga (performed Ashvamedha).
  • Kanvas: Vasudeva Kanva.
  • Satavahanas (Deccan): Gautamiputra Satakarni (greatest ruler, destroyed Shakas), Simuka (founder). Capital Paithan/Pratishthana. Matronymic names (e.g., Gautamiputra). Patronized Prakrit (Hala’s Gathasattasai). Chaityas (prayer halls), Viharas (monasteries). Trade with Rome.
  • Sangam Age (South India, c. 300 BC – 300 AD):
  • Literary Age: Three Sangams (assemblies of Tamil poets) held in Madurai.
  • Major Kingdoms: Cheras (capital Vanji/Karur, symbolized by ‘Bow’), Cholas (capital Uraiyur/Puhar, symbolized by ‘Tiger’, Karikala – great Chola ruler), Pandyas (capital Madurai, symbolized by ‘Fish’).
  • Literature: Ettuthogai (Eight Anthologies), Pattupattu (Ten Idylls), Pathinenkilkanakku (Eighteen Minor Works).
  • Epics: Silappathikaram (tale of a housewife Kannagi), Manimekalai (story of a courtesan’s daughter).
  • Economy: Flourishing trade (Roman), agriculture.
  • Society: Varna system less rigid.
  • Gupta Empire (c. 320 AD – 550 AD) – The “Golden Age” of Ancient India:
  • Founder: Sri Gupta.
  • Chandragupta I (c. 320-335 AD): Started Gupta Era (319-320 AD). Married Lichchhavi princess Kumaradevi.
  • Samudragupta (c. 335-375 AD): “Napoleon of India” (Vincent Smith). Allahabad Pillar Inscription describes his conquests (written by Harisena in Sanskrit). Patron of art & literature, called ‘Kaviraja’. Performed Ashvamedha.
  • Chandragupta II Vikramaditya (c. 375-415 AD): Extended empire to Western India. Patronized ‘Navaratnas’ (Nine Gems) including Kalidasa (author of Abhijnanashakuntalam, Meghaduta), Aryabhata (astronomer, mathematician – zero, Pi, heliocentric theory), Varahamihira (astronomer), Amarasimha (lexicographer – Amarakosha), Dhanvantari (physician). Fa-Hien (Chinese Buddhist pilgrim) visited his court.
  • Kumaragupta I: Founded Nalanda University (renowned Buddhist learning center).
  • Skandagupta: Repelled Huna invasion.
  • Administration: Less centralized than Mauryas. Provinces (Bhuktis), districts (Vishayas).
  • Religion: Revival of Brahmanism. Vaishnavism prominent. Puranas composed.
  • Science & Technology: Advances in astronomy, mathematics, metallurgy (Delhi Iron Pillar).
  • Art & Architecture: Development of Hindu temple architecture (Dasavatar Temple, Deogarh). Ajanta Cave paintings (Buddhist).
  • Decline: Huna invasions, weak successors, rise of feudatories.
  • Post-Gupta Period (c. 550 AD – 750 AD):
  • Harsha Vardhana (Pushyabhuti/Vardhana Dynasty, c. 606-647 AD):
  • Capital Kannauj. United Northern India. Stopped by Pulakesin II (Chalukya) at Narmada.
  • Hiuen Tsang (Xuanzang): Chinese Buddhist pilgrim visited his court, wrote ‘Si-Yu-Ki’.
  • Literary Works by Harsha: Priyadarsika, Ratnavali (dramas), Nagananda (religious drama).
  • Banabhatta: Court poet, wrote ‘Harshacharita’ (biography of Harsha) and ‘Kadambari’.

II. Medieval History of India (c. 700 AD – 1757 AD)

  • Early Medieval Period (c. 700-1200 AD):
  • Tripartite Struggle for Kannauj: Between Palas (Bengal, Bihar), Pratiharas (Marwar, Avanti), and Rashtrakutas (Deccan).
  • Rashtrakutas (Deccan): Dhantidurga (founder). Krishna I built Kailash Temple at Ellora (single rock-cut).
  • Chalukyas (of Badami, Vengi, Kalyani): Pulakesin II (Badami) defeated Harsha. Aihole inscription.
  • Pallavas (Kanchi): Mahendravarman I, Narasimhavarman I (Mamalla – architect of Shore Temple, Mahabalipuram Rathas). Dravidian style architecture.
  • Cholas (Tanjore): Greatest empire of South India.
  • Rajaraja I: Built Brihadeeswarar Temple (Tanjore). Conquered Sri Lanka, Maldives.
  • Rajendra I: “Gangaikondachola”. Extended empire to Bengal, Southeast Asia (Srivijaya kingdom). Built Gangaikondacholapuram.
  • Administration: Highly organized local self-government (Uttaramerur inscription). Naval power.
  • Art & Architecture: Dravidian style (large gopurams), bronze sculptures (Nataraja).
  • Ghazanavid Invasions: Mahmud of Ghazni (17 invasions of India, plundered Somnath Temple – 1025 AD). Patronized Al-Biruni (Kitab-ul-Hind).
  • Ghurid Invasions: Muhammad Ghori.
  • First Battle of Tarain (1191 AD): Ghori defeated by Prithviraj Chauhan III.
  • Second Battle of Tarain (1192 AD): Ghori defeated Prithviraj Chauhan III. Established Turkish rule in India.
  • Battle of Chandawar (1194 AD): Ghori defeated Jaichand of Kannauj.
  • The Delhi Sultanate (c. 1206 AD – 1526 AD):
  • Slave Dynasty (Mamluks, 1206-1290 AD):
  • Qutb ud-Din Aibak (1206-1210): Founder. Built Quwwat-ul-Islam mosque, started Qutb Minar (dedicated to Sufi saint Qutbuddin Bakhtiar Kaki). Died playing Chaugan (polo).
  • Iltutmish (1211-1236): Real consolidator. Completed Qutb Minar. Introduced Tanka (silver) and Jital (copper) coins. Organised ‘Chalghani’ (Corps of Forty). Shifted capital to Delhi. Saved India from Changez Khan/Mongol invasion.
  • Razia Sultan (1236-1240): First and only female Muslim ruler of Delhi.
  • Ghiyas ud din Balban (1266-1287): Broke power of Chalghani. Introduced ‘Sijda’ (prostration) and ‘Paibos’ (kissing feet) to emperor. Propounded ‘Divine Right of Kingship’. Policy of “Blood and Iron”.
  • Khalji Dynasty (1290-1320 AD):
  • Alauddin Khalji (1296-1316): Extended empire to Deccan (Malik Kafur’s expeditions). Market control policies (price control, separate departments). Built Alai Darwaza, Siri Fort. Introduced ‘Dagh’ (branding of horses) and ‘Chehra’ (descriptive roll of soldiers).
  • Tughlaq Dynasty (1320-1414 AD):
  • Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq (1320-1325): Founder of Tughlaqabad city. Started postal system.
  • Muhammad bin Tughlaq (1325-1351): “Man of ideas but lacked practical sense”.
  • Experiments: Transfer of capital from Delhi to Devagiri/Daulatabad. Introduction of Token Currency. Land revenue reforms (Doab experiment).
  • Disastrous policies: All failed.
  • Firoz Shah Tughlaq (1351-1388): Built canals, hospitals (Dar-ul-Shifa), new towns (Firozabad). Imposed Jizya strictly (even on Brahmins). Diwan-i-Bandagan (department of slaves).
  • Sayyid Dynasty (1414-1451 AD): Khizr Khan (founder).
  • Lodi Dynasty (1451-1526 AD):
  • Bahlul Lodi: Founder. First Afghan dynasty.
  • Sikandar Lodi: Founded Agra city (1504 AD) and made it capital. Introduced ‘Gaj-i-Sikandari’ (land measurement).
  • Ibrahim Lodi: Defeated by Babur in First Battle of Panipat (1526 AD).
  • Bhakti & Sufi Movements (c. 8th-17th centuries AD):
  • Bhakti Movement (Hindu):
  • Origin: South India (Alvars – Vaishnavites, Nayanars – Shaivites).
  • Philosophy: Emphasized devotion (bhakti) to a personal God, disregarded caste distinctions, used vernacular languages.
  • North India:
  • Saguna Bhakti (with attributes): Ramananda (north Indian pioneer), Tulsidas (Ramcharitmanas), Surdas (Sursagar).
  • Nirguna Bhakti (without attributes): Kabir (dohes, composite culture), Guru Nanak (Sikhism founder), Ravidas.
  • Vaishnavite: Chaitanya Mahaprabhu (Bengal, Krishna devotion).
  • Maharashtra: Jnaneshwar, Namdev, Eknath, Tukaram.
  • Sufi Movement (Islam):
  • Origin: Persia. Mystical branch of Islam. Emphasized love and devotion to God.
  • Orders (Silsilahs):
  • Chishti: Most popular. Khwaja Muinuddin Chishti (Ajmer), Nizamuddin Auliya (Delhi). Emphasized love for humanity.
  • Suhrawardi: Sheikh Bahauddin Zakariya. More materialistic.
  • Naqshbandi: Sheikh Ahmed Sirhindi. Orthodox.
  • Qadiri: Sheikh Abdul Qadir Gilani.
  • Vijayanagar Empire (1336-1646 AD):
  • Location: Southern India (Karnataka).
  • Founders: Harihara I & Bukka Raya I (Sangama Dynasty).
  • Dynasties: Sangama, Saluva, Tuluva, Aravidu.
  • Krishna Deva Raya (Tuluva Dynasty, 1509-1529): Greatest ruler. Contemporary of Babur. Patronized art, literature (Ashtadiggajas – eight poets, e.g., Allasani Peddana). Built Vitthala Swami and Hazara Rama temples.
  • Battle of Talikota (Rakhshasi-Tangadi, 1565 AD): Defeated by confederacy of Deccan Sultanates, led to decline.
  • Foreign Visitors: Nicolo de Conti (Italian), Abdur Razzaq (Persian), Domingo Paes (Portuguese).
  • Art & Architecture: Dravida style, Hampi (UNESCO site).
  • Bahmani Kingdom (1347-1527 AD):
  • Location: Deccan.
  • Founder: Alauddin Hasan Bahman Shah.
  • Capital: Gulbarga, then Bidar.
  • Five Decan Sultanates (emerged after its disintegration): Bijapur, Golconda, Ahmednagar, Berar, Bidar.
  • Mughal Empire (1526-1857 AD):
  • Zahir ud din Muhammad Babur (1526-1530):
  • First Battle of Panipat (1526): Defeated Ibrahim Lodi (used artillery, ‘Tulghuma’ tactics). Established Mughal Rule.
  • Battle of Khanwa (1527): Defeated Rana Sanga.
  • Battle of Ghagra (1529): Defeated combined Afghan forces.
  • Autobiography: Tuzuk-i-Baburi (Baburnama) in Chagatai Turkic.
  • Humayun (1530-1540, 1555-1556):
  • Battles with Sher Shah Suri: Battle of Chausa (1539), Battle of Kannauj (Bilgram, 1540). Lost empire.
  • Regained Empire: Defeated Sikandar Shah Suri in Battle of Sirhind (1555).
  • Tomb: Humayun’s Tomb (first garden tomb, precursor to Taj Mahal).
  • Sher Shah Suri (Interregnum, 1540-1545):
  • Administrator par excellence: Built Grand Trunk Road (from Sonargaon to Peshawar). Introduced ‘Rupaya’ (silver coin). Land revenue reforms (standardized measurements, ‘Patta’ & ‘Qabuliyat’).
  • Architecture: Purana Qila, Rohtas Fort.
  • Akbar the Great (1556-1605):
  • Second Battle of Panipat (1556): Defeated Hemu (with guardian Bairam Khan).
  • Consolidation: Conquered vast territories. Policy of conciliation with Rajputs.
  • Religious Policy: Abolished Jizya (1564) and pilgrimage tax. Ibadat Khana (House of Worship) at Fatehpur Sikri for religious discussions. Din-i-Ilahi (divine faith) – synthesized various religions. Sulh-i-Kul (universal peace).
  • Administration: Mansabdari system (military-cum-civil rank). Todar Mal’s land revenue system (Dahsala system).
  • Architecture: Fatehpur Sikri (Buland Darwaza, Panch Mahal, Jodha Bai’s Palace), Agra Fort, Lahore Fort.
  • Navaratnas (Nine Jewels): Abul Fazl (Akbarnama), Faizi (poet), Tansen (musician), Birbal (advisor), Todar Mal (finance minister), Raja Man Singh (general), Abdur Rahim Khan-i-Khana (poet), Mulla Do Piyaza, Faqir Aziao-din.
  • Jahangir (1605-1627):
  • Art & Painting: Zenith of Mughal painting. “Chain of Justice” at Agra Fort.
  • Foreign Visitors: Sir Thomas Roe, Captain William Hawkins.
  • Autobiography: Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri. Executed 5th Sikh Guru Arjan Dev.
  • Shah Jahan (1628-1658):
  • “Architect King”: Built Taj Mahal (Mumtaz Mahal’s tomb), Red Fort (Delhi), Jama Masjid, Moti Masjid. Shifted capital to Shahjahanabad (Delhi).
  • Golden Age of Mughal Architecture.
  • Aurangzeb (1658-1707):
  • Alamgir (“World Conqueror”): Expanded empire to its largest extent.
  • Religious Policy: Orthodox Sunni Muslim. Reimposed Jizya. Demolished Hindu temples. Executed 9th Sikh Guru Tegh Bahadur. Alienated Rajputs, Marathas, Jats, Satnamis, Sikhs.
  • Deccan Policy: Engaged in prolonged wars against Marathas and Deccan Sultanates, exhausted resources.
  • Decline of Mughal Empire started under him: Due to vastness, weak successors, Jagirdari crisis, rise of regional powers.
  • Later Mughals (1707-1857): Weak rulers, rapid decline, became puppets in hands of nobles. Battle of Plassey (1757) and Buxar (1764) established British supremacy. Bahadhur Shah Zafar II (last Mughal emperor, exiled after 1857 revolt).
  • Rise of Marathas:
  • Shivaji (1627-1680): “Father of the Maratha Nation”.
  • Military: Guerilla warfare (‘Ganimi Kava’).
  • Administration: Ashtapradhan mandal (Council of Eight Ministers). Chauth & Sardeshmukhi (taxes).
  • Coronation: Raigad (1674).
  • Peshwas (Prime Ministers): Became real power after Shivaji’s successors.
  • Balaji Vishwanath: First prominent Peshwa.
  • Baji Rao I: (Son of Balaji V.) “Fighting Peshwa”. Expanded Maratha power northward.
  • Balaji Baji Rao (Nana Saheb): Third Battle of Panipat (1761) against Ahmad Shah Abdali, disastrous defeat for Marathas.
  • Anglo-Maratha Wars: Led to ultimate British control over Marathas.

III. Modern Indian History (1757 AD – 1947 AD)

  • Arrival of Europeans:
  • Portuguese: Vasco da Gama (1498, Calicut). First to arrive, last to leave (Goa, 1961).
  • Dutch: Established trading posts.
  • English (British East India Company, 1600): Captain Hawkins (Jahangir’s court), Sir Thomas Roe.
  • French (French East India Company, 1664): Dupleix.
  • Anglo-French Rivalry (Carnatic Wars): Ultimately British won.
  • British Conquest of India:
  • Battle of Plassey (1757): Robert Clive defeated Siraj-ud-Daulah. Beginning of British political dominance.
  • Battle of Buxar (1764): British (Major Hector Munro) defeated combined forces of Mir Qasim, Shuja-ud-Daulah (Awadh), Shah Alam II (Mughal Emperor). Established British as true masters of Bengal, Bihar, Orissa.
  • Treaty of Allahabad (1765): Granted Diwani (revenue collection rights) of Bengal, Bihar, Orissa to EIC.
  • Anglo-Mysore Wars: Tipu Sultan of Mysore (Tiger of Mysore) fought against British. Died in 4th Anglo-Mysore War (1799).
  • Anglo-Maratha Wars: Resulted in Maratha subjugation.
  • Anglo-Sikh Wars: Annexation of Punjab (1849).
  • Doctrine of Lapse (Lord Dalhousie): Annexed states without natural heir (Satara, Nagpur, Jhansi).
  • Important British Governor-Generals/Viceroys & Reforms:
  • Warren Hastings (Bengal GG, 1772-1785): Regulating Act 1773, Asiatic Society of Bengal (William Jones, 1784).
  • Lord Cornwallis (GG, 1786-1793): Permanent Settlement of Bengal (1793). Introduced Civil Services in India. Police Reforms.
  • Lord Wellesley (GG, 1798-1805): Subsidiary Alliance.
  • Lord William Bentinck (GG, 1828-1835): Abolition of Sati (1829), Suppression of Thuggee. English as official language (Macaulay’s Minute).
  • Lord Dalhousie (GG, 1848-1856): Doctrine of Lapse, First Railway Line (Mumbai-Thane, 1853), Telegraph, Postal Reforms, Wood’s Despatch (1854 – education).
  • Lord Canning (GG & First Viceroy, 1856-1862): Revolt of 1857, Universities Act (Calcutta, Bombay, Madras).
  • Lord Lytton (Viceroy, 1876-1880): Vernacular Press Act (1878), Arms Act (1878).
  • Lord Ripon (Viceroy, 1880-1884): Repeal of Vernacular Press Act, Father of Local Self-Government, Ilbert Bill controversy.
  • Lord Curzon (Viceroy, 1899-1905): Partition of Bengal (1905), Ancient Monuments Preservation Act (1904).
  • Lord Minto II (Viceroy, 1905-1910): Morley-Minto Reforms (1909 – separate electorates).
  • Lord Hardinge II (Viceroy, 1910-1916): Annulment of Partition of Bengal, Capital shifted to Delhi (1911).
  • Lord Chelmsford (Viceroy, 1916-1921): Montague-Chelmsford Reforms (1919 – Diarchy). Jallianwala Bagh Massacre (1919).
  • Lord Irwin (Viceroy, 1926-1931): Simon Commission (1927), Dandi March (1930), Gandhi-Irwin Pact (1931).
  • Lord Willingdon (Viceroy, 1931-1936): Second & Third Round Table Conferences. Poona Pact (1932).
  • Lord Linlithgow (Viceroy, 1936-1943): Government of India Act 1935, Quit India Movement (1942).
  • Lord Wavell (Viceroy, 1943-1947): Wavell Plan, Simla Conference, Cabinet Mission (1946).
  • Lord Mountbatten (Last Viceroy, 1947): Mountbatten Plan, Indian Independence Act (1947).
  • C. Rajagopalachari: Only Indian Governor-General (1948-1950).
  • Socio-Religious Reform Movements:
  • Raja Ram Mohan Roy (1772-1833): “Father of Indian Renaissance”. Brahmo Samaj (1828). Abolition of Sati.
  • Swami Dayananda Saraswati (1824-1883): Arya Samaj (1875). “Back to Vedas”, Shuddhi Movement. Satyarth Prakash.
  • Swami Vivekananda (1863-1902): Ramakrishna Mission (1897). Parliament of Religions (Chicago, 1893).
  • Jyotiba Phule: Satyashodhak Samaj (1873). Against caste system & untouchability.
  • Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar: Advocated for widow remarriage, women’s education.
  • Sir Syed Ahmed Khan: Aligarh Movement, Aligarh Muslim University. Promoted modern education for Muslims.
  • Rise of Nationalism & Indian National Movement (1885-1947):
  • Indian National Congress (INC, 1885): Founded by A.O. Hume. First session Bombay. W.C. Bonnerjee (first president).
  • Phases:
  • Moderates (1885-1905): Dadabhai Naoroji (Grand Old Man of India, Drain Theory), Surendranath Banerjee, G.K. Gokhale. ‘Pray, Petition, Protest’.
  • Extremists (1905-1919): Lal-Bal-Pal (Lala Lajpat Rai, Bal Gangadhar Tilak, Bipin Chandra Pal). Aurobindo Ghosh. Advocated Swadeshi, Boycott, Swaraj.
  • Partition of Bengal (1905): Lord Curzon. Led to Swadeshi Movement.
  • Surat Split (1907): Congress split into Moderates and Extremists.
  • Home Rule Movement (1916): Annie Besant & Bal Gangadhar Tilak.
  • Lucknow Pact (1916): Congress-Muslim League unity, readmission of Extremists.
  • Gandhian Era (1919-1947):
  • Mahatma Gandhi: Arrived in India 1915 from South Africa.
  • Early Satyagrahas: Champaran (1917 – indigo planters), Ahmedabad Mill Strike (1918), Kheda (1918 – farmers).
  • Non-Cooperation Movement (1920-1922): After Rowlatt Act, Jallianwala Bagh, Khilafat Movement. Ended after Chauri Chaura incident.
  • Simon Commission (1927): All-white commission, boycotted.
  • Nehru Report (1928): Demand for Dominion Status.
  • Lahore Session (1929): Purna Swaraj (Complete Independence) resolution. Jan 26, 1930 declared Purna Swaraj Day.
  • Civil Disobedience Movement (1930-1934): Started with Dandi March (Salt Satyagraha). First Round Table Conference (1930).
  • Gandhi-Irwin Pact (1931): Gandhi attended 2nd RTC.
  • Communal Award & Poona Pact (1932): British announced separate electorates for depressed classes. Gandhi fasted, resulted in Poona Pact (joint electorates, reserved seats).
  • Government of India Act 1935: Provided for All-India Federation, Provincial Autonomy, Diarchy abolished at provinces, introduced at centre (never implemented).
  • Quit India Movement (1942): “Do or Die”. Leaders arrested.
  • Cripps Mission (1942): Failed.
  • Cabinet Mission (1946): Proposed plan for transfer of power.
  • Indian Independence Act (1947): Partition of India and Pakistan. August 15, 1947 – Independence.
  • Revolutionary Movements:
  • Early (Late 19th – Early 20th cen): Chapekar Brothers, Savarkar (Abhinav Bharat).
  • Hindustan Republican Association (HRA)/Hindustan Socialist Republican Association (HSRA): Chandrashekhar Azad, Bhagat Singh, Sukhdev, Rajguru, Ram Prasad Bismil, Ashfaqulla Khan. Kakori Conspiracy (1925), Lahore Conspiracy (1928), Central Assembly Bombing (1929).
  • Bengal: Surya Sen (Chittagong Armoury Raid).
  • Abroad: Ghadar Party (USA/Canada), Indian Independence League, Indian National Army (INA) by Subhas Chandra Bose.

World History: Pivotal Events and Ideas

  • Stone Ages: (Similar to Indian history, broadly Paleolithic, Mesolithic, Neolithic) – Rise of early human civilizations, discovery of fire, tools, agriculture.
  • Ancient Civilizations:
  • Mesopotamia: “Land between two rivers” (Tigris & Euphrates). Sumerians (first cities, Cuneiform script, Ziggurats), Babylonians (Hammurabi’s Code – “an eye for an eye”, Ishtar Gate), Assyrians (warlike).
  • Egypt: Nile River. Pharaohs, Pyramids, Mummification, Hieroglyphs, Rosetta Stone.
  • Greece: City-states (Athens-democracy, Sparta-military). Philosophers (Socrates, Plato, Aristotle), Mythology, Olympics, Persian Wars, Peloponnesian War. Alexander the Great (Hellenistic age).
  • Rome: Republic to Empire. Roman Law, Latin, Colosseum, Pantheon, Roman roads. Julius Caesar, Augustus. Fall of Western Roman Empire (476 AD).
  • Feudalism (Medieval Europe, c. 9th-15th cen): System of reciprocal legal and military obligations where land ownership was exchanged for service. Lords, Vassals, Serfs.
  • The Crusades (1096-1291): Series of religious wars between Christians and Muslims over control of Holy Land. Had significant social, economic, and political impacts on Europe.
  • Renaissance (c. 14th-17th cen): “Rebirth” in Europe. Revival of classical art, literature, and learning. Humanism.
  • Key figures: Leonardo da Vinci (Mona Lisa, Last Supper), Michelangelo (David, Sistine Chapel), Raphael, Shakespeare (playwright).
  • Led to Age of Exploration.
  • Reformation (16th cen): Religious movement against the Catholic Church.
  • Martin Luther: 95 Theses (1517). Protestantism.
  • Impact: Divided Christianity, religious wars, rise of nation-states.
  • Age of Exploration/Discovery (15th-18th cen): European powers explored and colonized new lands.
  • Key figures: Christopher Columbus (Americas), Vasco da Gama (sea route to India), Ferdinand Magellan (circumnavigation).
  • Led to colonialism, global trade routes.
  • Scientific Revolution (16th-18th cen): Shift from religious explanations to scientific observation and experimentation.
  • Key figures: Copernicus (heliocentric model), Galileo Galilei (telescope), Isaac Newton (laws of motion & gravity).
  • Enlightenment (18th cen): Intellectual and philosophical movement emphasizing reason, individualism, and human rights.
  • Key figures: John Locke (natural rights), Jean-Jacques Rousseau (social contract), Voltaire (freedom of speech).
  • Influenced American and French Revolutions.
  • Revolutions:
  • American Revolution (1775-1783): Against British rule. “No Taxation without Representation”. Declaration of Independence (1776).
  • French Revolution (1789-1799): “Liberty, Equality, Fraternity”. Overthrew monarchy, rise of Napoleon Bonaparte.
  • Industrial Revolution (Late 18th-19th cen): Began in Britain. Shift from agrarian to industrial economies. New machines (steam engine, power loom), factories, urbanization. Led to new social classes, imperialism.
  • Imperialism (19th-early 20th cen): European powers carved up Africa and Asia for resources and markets.
  • World War I (1914-1918):
  • Causes: Militarism, Alliances (Triple Entente vs. Triple Alliance), Imperialism, Nationalism. Assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand.
  • Key Events: Trench warfare, new weapons (tanks, poison gas). U.S. entry (1917).
  • Results: Treaty of Versailles, League of Nations formed, map of Europe redrawn.
  • Russian Revolutions (1917):
  • February Revolution: Overthrew Tsar Nicholas II.
  • October Revolution: Bolsheviks (Lenin) seized power, established Soviet Union.
  • Rise of Dictatorships (1920s-1930s): Fascism (Mussolini – Italy), Nazism (Hitler – Germany), Communism (Stalin – USSR).
  • World War II (1939-1945):
  • Causes: Treaty of Versailles, rise of fascism/totalitarianism, appeasement policy, German expansionism. Invasion of Poland (1939).
  • Allies vs. Axis Powers: Allies (USA, UK, USSR, France) vs. Axis (Germany, Italy, Japan).
  • Key Events: Pearl Harbor, Stalingrad, D-Day, Holocaust.
  • End: Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki (1945).
  • Results: United Nations formed, Cold War began (USA vs. USSR), decolonization.
  • Cold War (1947-1991): Ideological and geopolitical rivalry between USA (capitalism) and USSR (communism). Proxy wars, arms race, space race, Berlin Wall, Cuban Missile Crisis.
  • Collapse of Soviet Union (1991): End of Cold War.

Key Tips for Revision:

  • Timelines: Create mental or written timelines for major eras and events.
  • Cause & Effect: Understand why events happened and their consequences.
  • Personalities: Connect key individuals to their contributions and periods.
  • Maps: Visualise geographical locations of empires, battles, and trade routes.
  • Practice MCQs: Regularly solve multiple-choice questions to test your knowledge.
  • Focus on Trends: Look for broad movements like urbanization, decline of religions, rise of specific art forms.
  • Keywords: Associate specific terms (e.g., Dhamma, Mansabdari, Doctrine of Lapse, Perestroika) with their respective contexts.
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Editorial Team

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